Traditional Cattle Management Systems 
and Indigenous Veterinary Medicine of 
Sri Lanka 
In t roduc t ion 

S ri Lanka having an 
a g r i c u l t u r e - b a s e d 
civilisation with an 

agricultural history of over 13,000 
years, the archaeological evidence 
to confirm the ex is tence of a 
nomadic era is very scanty or nil. 
There are still doubts about the 
indigenous cattle in Sri Lanka, as 
to whether they are truly 
indigenous or have been introduced 
during sometime in the history from 
our neighbouring countr ies . 
However, the so called "Local cattle" 
or "indigenous breeds which are 
locally known as "Batu harak* was 
found to be a sub species of the 
Indian cattle (Bos taurus). But they 
are phenotypically different to the 
true Indian cattle. Therefore, our 
archaeologists categorised them as 
a sub species of Indian cattle and 
named them a s Bos indicus 
sinheleyus (Deraniyagala, 1992). A 
descriptive a c c o u n t on the 
phenotypic characteristics of true 
indigenous cattle has been given by 
J . Dela H. Merret in 1973. The true 
indigenous cattle had been extinct 
in the late 1930 's according to 
l i terature , due to excessive 
slaughter for beef during the World 
War II. The present so called 
"indigenous" for the "Batu harak" are 
not typical true to type phenotypes, 
but they are the cross between the 
true indigenous and Indian cattle. 
Therefore, there is no harm if we 
call these breeds as "local cattle" 
instead "indigenous" (here after they 
will be called as local cattle in this 
text) [Perera, 2005) . 

Rearing of dairy cattle has been an 
integral component in our 
traditional agricultural system. 

Cattle have assisted immensely in 
rural agricultural practices from 
land preparation, threshing to 
transporting of agricultural produce 
from the field to the storage. In 
addition, these species, especially 
the cattle, became so close to the 
rural peasantry society that they 
were treated as a part of the family. 
They were well looked after and 
taken care of. The little calves 
became a playmate of the rural 
children. During their use in the 
field, especially land preparation, 
they were called as "children" 
"beloved" or even "divine ones". In 
addition to their ass is tance in 
providing "power", they also provided 
valuable plant nutrients through 
urine and dung to nourish their 
crops as valuable fertilisers. Their 
milk made the Sri Lankan people a 
healthy nation, to give strength to 
tilt the soil to make Sri Lanka self 
sufficient and to fight against the 
foreign invaders and save and 
sustain a free mother Lanka in the 
past. 

Milk provided most precious five 
tas tes , " Pasgorasa" or 
"Panchagoarara" (milk, cream, whey, 
curd, and butter) considered as 
noble food in the cuisine of the past 
in elite menus. This is well reported 
in the ancient documentation by 
both local and foreign scholars. 
Ancient kings and noblemen have 
offered cattle and buffalo to temples 
to use their products a s food 
(Panchagorasa) and to lit lamps with 
butter fat. 

Traditional Classification of 
Cattle in Sri Lanka 

Many Asian countries (Malaysia, 
Indonesia, etc.) have many wild 

Prof. A.Nimal F. Perera 
A.Nimhani K. Perera 

Wayamba University of 
Sri Lanka, Kuliyapitlya 

Prof. E.R.Kalyani Perera 
University of Peradeniya, 

Peradeniya. 

relatives of cattle in addition to the 
domesticated species. However, in 
Sri Lanka, there are records of a wild 
relative of the indigenous cattle. 
This species is known as the 
historically well-known "Gavara" / 
(Bos gaums). A wild relative of this 
species is still present in the 
foothills of Nilgiri in India. This was 
a wild species and some names of 
locations in the country, such as, 
"Gavarapitiycf, aGavaraElkf "Gavara ' 
KandcC "Gavaratennd', etc,, explains 
the presence of this animal in Sri 
Lanka. Even in accounts of Robert 
Knox, this animal h a s been 
mentioned during the period of the 
Kandyan kingdom. Though no 
records are found to confirm the 
domestication of this species, 
there is evidence to say that this 
animal was used as a combat 
animal to test the endurance of the 
Sinhala warriors. However, by the 
latter part of the 19 t h century, this 
animal was reported to be extinct 
due to unrestricted slaughter as 
game. ^ 

Traditionally, the catt le were 
grouped into seven castes (groups) 
based on the body characteristics 
and behaviour. They are; Raja, 
Bamunu, Velanda, Govi, Gap, Situ and 
Uposatho. Therefore, based on the 
purpose of use, the cattle were 

— Economic Review: April/ May 2010 63 



chosen from the respective caste 
(group). The belief was that, by 
choosing the animal this way, it will 
make them more efficient and 
prevent animals from being ill or 
have accidents. 

Socie ty and Cattle Management 

In the ancient society, cat t le 
belonged to many groups in the 
social strata. The king had his own 
cattle herds to provide power and 
milk to the royals. The general 
public also owned cattle herds for 
power, draught, fertiliser and a 
source of food supply (beef was never 
consumed orpromoted by the civilised 
society; the people who consumed 
beef was considered as low social 
status or outcaste). 

During ancient times, the royal 
palace had a separate 
administration to manage its own 
herd of" White Cattle" and this was 
known as "Rajakiya Sudu Harak 
Panthiya". These were not local 
breeds, but were imported from 
India, may be with the introduction 
of Indian Queens to Sri Lanka. This 
importation is confirmed by the 16 t h 

century Natha Devale rock 
inscription. The royal cattle herd 
was under a Royal Official known 
as "Muhandiram" and was managed 
by many other low ranking officials, 
the "Vidanas". As a result , a 
position named "Patti Vidand* was 
involved among the royal officials. 
These animals were allowed to free 
graze since there were many open 
grazing fields available in the past. 
The grazing of animals was the duty 
of the people belonging to 
"Pannadura" Caste during the 
Kandyan kingdom, in the society, 
and this was equally placed with 
the so called highest cas te in 
upcountry " Govigama" 

(Wimaladharma, 1981), 

A herd of cattle in the traditional 
management system were known 
as "Pattiya" and the owner of the 
herd was named as "Gosamika", 
whereas the caretaker was known 
as 'Gopalaka". The stud bull who 
serves for the progeny of the herd 

was known as "GopariNaika". Some 
names for places have been derived 
from the term "Pattxyd* is used even 
today, for example "Pattiyagedarzf, 
"Pattipola", "Pattiyahandiya", etc. 

The ownership of the cattle that 
belong to the public was identified 
by "hot branding* or moxibustion. 
In addition to the personal identity, 
they also had the branding signs 
to denote the social caste of the 
owner. During ancient times, with 
the system of division of labour, 
duties were delegated to people of 
respective castes in the society. 
People from different castes had 
privileges and restr ict ions . 
Therefore, inclusion of the sign of 
the c a s t e in the animal 
identification became important. 

In the dry zone of Sri Lanka, due to 
the availability of excessive extents 
of natural grazing lands, the cattle 
owners had a large herd, sometimes 
exceeding one thousand animals. 
Today, even if not that large, there 
are herds of at least up to 5 0 0 
heads grazing together and owned 
by one or few owners. Earlier, this 
system was called "Gambara*. 
These large herds are kept either 
for financial security or as a symbol 
of social status. 

Noosing and Training o f Cat t le 
and Buffalo 

In the early history, animals were 
domest icated for agricul tural 
purposes by capturing wild animals 
and taming them. In traditional 
cattle production, since there are 
no wild cat t le in our forests, 
noosing was done to capture wild 
buffaloes (Sri Lankan wild buffalo is 
the same species as domesticated 
species Bubalus bubalis). This was 
done by trained men known as 
" marikarayxf. The noose is made out 
of deer skin, of which one end is 
the noose and the other end a 
strong antler of a Sambur with one 
side branch attached as hook. The 
total length of the noose is about 
4 0 feet with a thickness of 1.5 

inches with 3 - 4 strands of twisted 

deer skin strips. To make this 
noose, one needs 4 - 5 skins of fully 
grown deer. If the noose can be used 
in the neck, leg or horns, it is 
called "Ismadu", "Paamadu" and 
"Angmadu" respectively. 
Preparation and use of these noose 
is a traditional science. Every 
individual cannot perform this. 
Therefore, there are specialised 
families who acquire the knowledge 
and science from their ancestors 
through their family and 
generations. 

Setting of the noose is a 
combination of skill, astrology and 
spiritual belief. Noose setter has 
to follow strict religious customs 
and rituals, and have to prepare for 
a few days before, since this is a 
life and death exercise. There are 
many chanting among them for the 
success of the noosing and also for 
the release of the noosed animals. 
Noosing is done with the help of a 
tamed buffalo, and this animal is 
known as "stalking buffalo* or locally 
"dadameema". Once the noose is set 
on the wild animal, it is tied to a 
tree and allowed to starve the 
animal for few days to make him 
physically weak. Thereafter, the 
animal is coupled with a well-
tamed and trained animal and both 
animals are tied together for few 
days before separated. Gradually 
the wild buffalo becomes docile, and 
thereafter, it will be further tamed 
to put it into use. 

When the captured buffalo or 
already domesticated male animals 
are not docile enough to put them 
into work, or occasionally some 
animals become suborned, and 
their masculinity is controlled by 
castrating them. Castration refers 
to the inactivation or destroying of 
one or both testicles so that the 
male hormone production of the 
animal Is ceased and become more 
docile, thus easy to handle. 
Traditionally, this is done by tying 
all four legs together and casting 
the animal sideways. The upper 
scrotal area is gripped with two 
thick smooth poles tied together 
from one end (PQid^mdu). Then with 
a heavy flat wooden mallet or by fist 

Economic Review: April/ May 2010 — 64 



gently tap on both testicles until 
they cease the hardness and feel 
as semi-liquid or jelly nature. This 
is a painful operation and even 
practised today for draught cattle 
and "thavalam" cattle. This process 
is traditionally known a s 
"PUikedeemd* or "Kappadukereemd' or 
"Kara embeema". After recovery, this 
gives the animal an extra vigour 
and the animal tends to fatten and 
become more docile (Perera, 2005) . 

Grazing and Feeding o f Cattle 

Traditional feeding of cattle is by 
free ranging and on natural forages. 
The gambara system, as mentioned 
before, is a very popular 
management system even today in 
the dry zone. Animals feed on 
scrub jungles, wastelands, fallow 
rice fields, tank bunds and beds, 
etc. Unlike today, no cut and carry 
system was in practice. They had 
extensive common grazing lands 
with plenty of forages. The village 
tank provided drinking water and 
water for wallowing. But the 
animals are not allowed to stalk 
along the tank bund or to damage 
it. U the tank bund is damaged, the 
cost of the repair had to be borne 
by the cattle owner. The cattle are 
allowed to the village tank only 
from one entry point, which is 
especially reserved for use of the 
cattle and known as "Gonmankada", 
other than this specified area , 
cattle are not allowed from any 
other entry to the village tank. 
Anybody who violates this rule had 
to pay heavy fines. 

For the stud bull of the herd or the 
"gopari naika", a small amount of 
coconut poonac, gingerly poonac 
[thala muruvata) or Mee oil poonac 
(Mee muruvata) is given to maintain 
the body condition. The calves 
during the suckling age allowed 
drinking milk from the mother as 
they wish without any restriction. 
Milk of the cow was considered to 
be the right of the calf. 

Traditional 
Cattle 

Management of 

Traditionally, the cattle are not 
managed, but well looked after as 

a close family companion. Good 
care was taken on their nutrition, 
health and other aspects. In most 
instances, when the herds become 
large, they never bother to sell the 
excess until they become a too big 
herd to handle. Even then, they are 
not sold, but lend to another family 
whom they think that they will be 
looked after well or on an "ande" 
system that they can recover when 
the farmers need. Often, when the 
cows are old and become 
unproductive, they are allowed to 
live a free life with owner until they 
die. 

Cattle were allowed to free graze 
and never confined to sheds and 
fed. It is the responsibility of the 
village cult ivators to fix their 
fences around the cultivated 
farmland and protect the crops from 
cattle and other intruders. There 
are norms and traditions followed 
by the traditional cattle farmers. To 
list few 

i. Cattle are allowed to freely graze 
during day and night. 

ii. Every farmer has to protect their 
rice fields and other cultivated 
areas by fixing proper protective 
fences against cattle and other 
animals (Dandu and Veta - every 
farmer have to abide by this law). 

iii. Not to harm any cattle by any 
means, and offenders are punished 
by the law enforcing authorities. 
These regulations provided cattle 
with ample grazing opportunities to 
roam freely with their offspring. 

It is the responsibility of the 
herdsmen to keep the cattle shed 
free of dirt, and before the cattle 
return to their night resting places, 
to smoke the area with herbs so 
that the flies and the mosquitoes 
are repelled. When the cattle are 
returned to the night rest, they are 
to be inspected individually for 
pricks and wounds. If any prick or 
wound is found, immediately they 
should be properly treated. 

Changing of grazing fields, leading 
to fresh water sources , when 
feeding and drinking water, leading 
them so that there will be no 

competition between the strong 
and the weak, is the responsibility 
of the herdsmen. This system of 
catt le management , what we 
practice with present day scientific 
knowledge, has been introduced 
and well documented in the old text 
" Papagnasudani" and 
" Samanthapaidika", a Pali text 
written by Venerable 
Buddhaghosha Thero, in the 5 t h 

century AD. 

This testifies the extraordinary 
knowledge we had in cattle 
management in the past. The white 
cattle in the Eastern province have 
been recognised by the 
Internat ional Cattle Breeders 
Association as a breed indigenous 
to Sri Lanka. However, their 
ancestors must have been brought 
from Indian continent and 
introduced to the Eastern region 
many centuries ago. These white 
cattle are presently identified as a 
breed and known as "white cattle" 
or "Thamankaduwa" breed. These 
cattle had been imported to Sri 
Lanka from Indian subcontinent by 
one of the kings of the Kandyan 
kingdom and had brought to 
Eastern region by sea route, and 
allowed to settle in the East. In the 
past, Eastern region was under the 
Kandyan kingdom. Is there any 
relationship between the "Royal 
white cattle herd" and this 
"Thamankaduwa" breed? However, 
according to l i terature, 
Thamankaduwa area had been 
popular for cattle breeding. The 
people in the Thamankaduwa area 
are predominantly Muslims, and by 
profession, they are experienced 
bullock cart owners who transport 
goods, islandwide. Therefore, for 
their draught purposes, they must 
have had their catt le bred by 
themselves (Davy, 1821). 

Animal Health and Hygiene 

There is a long history for animal 
health and traditional veterinary 
medicine in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka is 
well famous for animal treatment, 
not only for cattle, but also for other 
animal species too. This system of 
diagnosis and treatment derived 
from our own local knowledge which 
is generations old and time tested. 

65 Economic Review: April/ May 2010 



This is one branch of 
"helawedakama*. According to the 
history, a great warrior king, much 
before the advent of King Vijeya in 
6 t h century BC. the "Dasis" or King 
Ravana was considered to be a 
veterinarian as well as a human 
medicine practitioner who had 
written many valuable medical 
texts which are used in present day 
medicinal practices in Ayurvedic 
medicine. In addition, there are 
many popular Kings of Sri Lanka 
during the past who themselves 
practise veterinary medicine by 
themselves or promoted by 
appointing qualified doctors to 
attend to the needy and even built 
hospitals to treat and care for 
them. 

According to. the traditional 
veterinary practices, a buffalo and 
cattle could suffer from 4448 and 
1 6 4 0 0 disease conditions, 
respectively. The major ailments 
are categorised into "Adappan" and 
" Vepptt caused by the imbalance of 
the internal biological system of the 
animal. The diagnosis is done by 
the external symptoms and the 
animal behaviour, and sometimes 
the behaviour of the messenger 
{Dutha Lakshana] or the rate of the 
pulses (Naadi Saasthra). 

Traditional medicinal system is not 
based only on medicine. It involves 
astrology, spiritual powers, rituals, 
chanting and offerings, etc. As 
medicine, herbal (Plants/leaves, 
stems, roots, flowers, fruits, whole 
plant, plant e x u d a t e s / r e s i n s ) , 
minerals (salts and other mineral 
based compounds) and animal 
products (urine, feaces, horn, skin, 
blood, milk, bones, hair , 
secretions, boer stones, etc.) are 
used. Some deadly poisons mineral 
compounds (Arsenic, Mercury, 
Silver, Gold, Copper, etc.) are used 
after processing it to eliminate the 
poisonous effect. 

As methods of treatment , 
decoctions, extractions, pastes, 
powders, oils, mellun, paththu, 
smoke, vapour of volatiles, etc. are 
used. These are given as orally, 
through nose (nasna), paste (alepa 
and paththu), smoke and volatiles 

(inhales), preasure [katuchikithsa), 
etc. 

In selection of medicines, 
especially the plants and plant 
par t s , there are rituals to be 
followed. These include the 
location, day, time and the direction 
of harvest . Also the person by 
whom the harvesting is done, have 
to be prepared according to the 
spiritual and other rituals. 

Treatment methods include 
medicine, heat treatment of vital 
points (moxibustion), chanting 
(yanthra & manthra), offerings to 
the gods and deities [baara haara). 
Some of the common and most 
tested treatments are; chanting to 
mustard seeds for infested wounds, 
tying of sour orange in the mouth 
for throat infection, hanging of 
medicinal ball in the neck for bone 
fractures, burning of "yanthra'' (sign 
of the trident) on the back for 
paralysis and resins with human 
hair for broken horn. This is only a 
small account on this subject. This 
knowledge has been with us 
generations before and is been 
practised even today in occasions 
where veterinary surgeons are 
difficult to find or when the modern 
veterinary medicine give up the 
hope of recovery. 

Regarding our traditional veterinary 
practices, documentation is very 
scanty. Few old texts were present 
in ole leaf and some have been 
translated into printed form, but the 
present day availability of such 
knowledge is very remote. To name 
few books for the readers benefit 
uGava Veda Potha* written in 1599, 
" Gavasidhisaaraya", " Gorathnaya" 
and "Ga varathnaya " were the old text 
that are available. The first author 
has compiled this information from 
available ancient texts . and 
interviewing 2 5 0 traditional 
pract i t ioners , prepared and 
documented a comprehensive text 
in 2005 (Perera, 2005) . 

Gods and D e i t i e s 
Product ion 

in C a t t l e 

requesting blessings and offering 
thanksgiving to gods and deities. 
Livestock production is no 
exception. There are many gods and 
deities involved in catt le 
production. Some are venerated 
islandwide and some are specific to 
certain locations. Some gods and 
deities have the origin locally and 
others derived from India with the 
Hindu culture. The vehicle of God 
Eswara is the cow; therefore, the 
Hindus have a great respect for the 
cow. 

In catt le farming, the most 
venerated gods are the "Gopalla'' 
and "Mangara". Gopalla, is 
considered as a god as well as a 
devil. God Gopalla helps to improve 
the milk production of the cows and 
the god Mangara helps to improve 
the reproduction of the cows so that 
the cattle herd expands rapidly. 

The other gods that are responsible 
for the cattle production and their 
blessings are God Bandara, Kosgama 
Bandara, Ulapane Kiriamma, 
Aiyanayaka. In addition to these 
gods, the blessings of the other 
gods in Hindu religion are also 
requested. Buddhists ask for the 
blessings of the lord Buddha by 
chanting several suthra and pirith 
phrases (Perera, 2005) . 

C a t t l e P r o d u c t s Used 
Tradi t ional Medicine 

in 

Traditional agriculture is associated 
with spiritual practices such as 

In addition to power, draught, 
manure, milk, cattle also provide 
essential ingredients for traditional 
medicine. Sr i Lanka Helavedakama 
is more ancient than Ayurvedic 
medicine. Unfortunately, we do not 
have or have not yet explored the 
documentary or other form of 
evidence to testify this fact. But our 
legends and folklore indicate about 
the generations-old system of 
medicine what is different to 
Ayurvedic and unique to us. 

The cattle products that are used 
in the traditional medicine and 
agricultural rituals can be listed as 
"Gorochana" (cattle bile stones / 
boer stones) , Hair balls [Gava 
Goraya), cattle urine (Ela muthra), 
Gom pas (cattle dung), cattle horn 
[Gavaanga) (Perera, 2005). 

Economic Review: April/ May 2010 



Cow Milk and Tradit ions 

Cow milk is the most important and 
valuable product in catt le 
production. Cow milk is the most 
natural wholesome food that one 
can have in the nature after the 
mother's milk. But, knowing this 
fact, many are trying to exploit Sri 
Lankan poor nation based on cow 
milk [this theme is not to discuss in 
this matter but other occasion this will 
be discussed critically). Many Sri 
Lankans cannot drink fresh milk 
by nature . Global "lactose 
intolerance" map, except India, 
many other Asian nations have this 
lactose intolerance condition in 
more than 60% of the population. 
This must have been known to our 
ancestors. Therefore, nowhere in 
our history, drinking of cow milk is 
mentioned by everybody in the 
society as in India. But instead, we 
consumed cow milk as curd or as 
other products of "pasgorasa". We 
relished pasgorasa, but not fresh 
milk. Fresh milk is given to young 
and old aged people as a nutritional 
supplement, but as a whole food. 
Infants and very young were 
nourished with mother's breast 
feeding.- Breas t feeding was 
practised until the child is 3 - 4 
years old. This pract ice 
physiologically acted as a birth 
control measure or as "natural and 
biological contraceptive". 

We had a tradition that, fresh raw 
milk was never sold or offered to 
another house, believing that this 
can bring bad evil or considered as 
bad omen. If offered to another 
house, it was either boiled or 
converted into a product (curd, 
whey, or other). In the traditional 
Tamil Hindu community, they add 
water to milk before offer or sold, 
so that it will not pure milk, but 
adulterated. 

According to the typical traditional 
food habits and food composition, 
milk or dairy products are not 
necessary . Their protein and 
calcium requirements were 
satisfied by other animal proteins 
(eggs, game meat, marine/fresh 
water fish) and vegetable sources 
(green leaves, pulses, nuts, fruits). 

Osteoporosis in older or pregnant 
women and under developed 
cerebral conditions or poor 
intelligence due to malnutrition 
were never heard of. Therefore, 
traditional people allowed only the 
younger generation and the older 
generation to consume milk, and 
the rest was given to the calf 
without restriction. 

Cow milk allergy cause many health 
disturbances among Sri Lankans. 
This allergy is due to a certain milk 
protein present in cow milk. Cow 
milk is not naturally produced for 
humans, but for calves. Therefore, 
incompatibility in some individuals 
is inevitable. This is one of the 
main problems why fresh milk is 
refused to be consumed by the 
people and opt for processed milk 
products . According to the 
traditional medicine and food 
science, milk from the indigenous 
cows of Sri Lanka is free from the 
milk protein that trigger the "cow 
milk allergy" in human, 
Unfortunately, we have consumed 
to extinct all our indigenous cattle 
species. This was known to our 
ances tors and therefore, they 
naturally processed cow milk prior 
to consumption to overcome this 
limitation in consuming milk. 

Milk is made of blood. Therefore, 
both traditional Sri Lankans and 
Hindus never used milk for 
propitious occasions for prosperity 
or at auspicious times. In boiling 
and spilling of milk (traditional Kri 
Ithiriweema) during auspicious 
occasions, traditionally "cow milk" 
was never used. In such auspicious 
occasions always "coconut milk" 
was used. Even in the traditional 
"Kiri Koraha Manglaya" of Veddha, 
communities, only coconut milk is 
used. In the Hindu religious 
rituals, milk is used because of its 
close association to the blood. The 
"Siva Lingum* is bathed with milk, 
and the women who have 
difficulties in getting pregnant will 
get the blessing of god Siva and 
blessed with a pregnancy. Many 
other gods and goddess of Hindu 
religion who wishes offerings based 
on blood are offered with milk. 

C o n c l u s i o n 

Traditional cattle production is 
unique to Sri Lanka, and this 
system h a s been with our 
ancestors for many generations. 
This is unique because the system 
of management and the other 
aspects such as caring for them 
and looking after their health 
cannot be found in other countries. 
The classif ication of catt le , 
capturing and t rea tments for 
ailments are advanced and even 
accepted by the modern veterinary 
science. Products made out of milk, 
what we relished today, have been 
identified many centuries ago. 
Some of these value addition 
processes contribute to the milk 
producers to enhance their level of 
income. Unfortunately, this 
centuries-old industry is day by day 
degrading due to the lack of genuine 
interest of our leaders and 
policymakers. A country, once that 
was flourished with milk and honey 
towards prosperity, presently, has 
fallen to a sad state. Today we are 
self sufficient in milk up to a level 
of less than 15% and are not too 
late to become a nation of self 
sufficient if we make up our minds 
by taking our neighbour India as an 
example. We wish mother Lanka all 
success. 

References : 

Davy, J . (1821). An account of the 
interior of Ceylon and its inhabitants 
with travels in that island (reprinted 
in 1990). Asian Education Service, 
India. 

Deraniyagala, S.U. (1992). The Pre -
history of Sri Lanka: An ecological 
perspective. Volume I & II. 
Department of Archaeological Survey. 
Colombo. 

Papagnasudani Majjima Nikayatha 
Katha of Buddha Ghoshacariya. 
(1928). Part II. Eds.J.H. Woods and 
D. Kosambi. The Oxford University 
Press. London. 

Perera, A.N.F. (2005). Traditional 
cattle management and medicine. 
CORE Publication. Sri Lanka. 

Wimaladharma, K.P. (1981) . 
Sociological aspects of livestock 
development in Sri Lanka. Livestock 
Development Report. Colombo. 

Economic Review: April/ May 2010 6 7